The data from one simulation run were used to train the ANNs and the data from the other independent simulation run were to validate the purchase R428 training effects and prevent the overfitting issue. 5. ANN Training and Results Evaluation Multiple experiments were conducted and the results were compared to determine the best ANN model to predict the individual vehicle’s RLR possibilities. The ANN training process is usually long but once the training is finished, the

well trained ANN model is essentially an analytical model and so it is fast enough for all kinds of online applications. 5.1. Scenario One: Input Data Are Combined with Red-Light Runners and Regular Vehicles Step 1. Train and compare various ANNs with different compositions of input variables, output variables, and network structures.

The training algorithm was the standard backpropagation algorithm as in (9) with the learning rate 0.7 and the stopping MSE was 0.005. The activation functions were set as the Tanh functions (6) for both hidden neurons and output neurons. Preliminarily, sixteen options were generated with various compositions of inputs and outputs. The underlying rationale was that some input variables may contribute more to the RLR problem than the others and it is needed to only capture the most important factors to avoid overcomplicating the problem. In addition, the output variants are useful for various collision avoidance strategies. Given that we had little prior knowledge about how many hidden layers and neurons of the MLP network were sufficient to approximate the RLR problem, it was wise to start with the cascade-correlation (CC) network which gradually adds hidden neurons while learning and the final CC structure can help us to better understand the ANN’s necessary complexity. Table 2 describes the configurations of all the sixteen options. After some preliminary tests, the maximum of hidden neurons in the CC model was set as 100 because more neurons made the training excessively long with only limited further MSE reduction. The MLP structure

was designed Drug_discovery as three hidden layers and each hidden layer contains 10 hidden neurons. Table 2 Configurations of preliminary twelve ANNs. Table 3 is the ranking in the minimum MSE (i.e., the effectiveness of approximation). From Table 3, only Options 8 and 16 could reach the target MSE (0.005) and therefore be selected as the candidate model and then go to the next step: model validation. The remaining options stagnated before reaching the desired 0.005. Figure 3 reveals the learning trends of Option 8 and Option 16. Option 8 and Option 16 had no overfitting issues before reaching the target MSE since the test MSEs kept decreasing in the training process. Figure 3 Training trend under the Option 8 and Option 16 models. Table 3 MSE ranking among various options. Step 2 (model validation with a new set of data).