To reach the absorption window, PMs can be manipulated

by coupling different types of polymers or by grafting various functional groups at the hydrophilic end of the copolymer, such as the pH-sensitive [72–74] and receptor sensitive groups [75]. 4.1. Special Stability of PMs for Enhancement of Bioavailability As we discussed above, GI tract is the major barrier for oral drugs. After oral administration, drugs will encounter the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical harsh physicochemical environment of the GI tract and be degraded due to the variation of pH levels as well as the presence of enzymes or bile salts. To ensure delivery of the carried drugs to the absorption sites, PMs must be able to Tofacitinib Citrate clinical trial resist rapid dissociation upon dilution and retain the stable core-shell structure before target sites. It is known that PMs possess two aspects of structural stability, thermodynamic and kinetic, provided by the entanglement of polymer chains in the inner core [76–78]. For a micelle to be thermodynamically stable, the copolymer selleck inhibitor concentration should be above its CMC. The CMC is influenced Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical by the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of the block copolymer [79]. A reverse relationship between the CMC and hydrophobicity of the core-forming blocks has been shown in many studies: an increase in the hydrophobic block length results in a lower CMC Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical if the hydrophilic segment is kept constant [80]. Generally, PMs show very low CMC values

in a range from 10−6 to 10−7M. These CMC values are much smaller than those of micelles formed from low-molecular

weight surfactants (10−3–10−4M) [81], which allows a series of dilution and still retain the micellar structure. The second aspect, kinetic stability of PMs, comes into Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the picture when the concentration of the copolymer falls below the CMC. Kinetic stability may be more important than the thermodynamic stability for the nonequilibrium Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical drug delivery conditions. Unlike micelles formed from low molecular weight surfactant molecules, the kinetic stability of PMs is high for the stiff or bulky core structure. Therefore, the disassembly of PMs at a concentration below CMC occurs at a relatively slower rate because of the relatively high kinetic stability. The slow dissociation allows PMs to retain their integrity and drug content before reaching the target sites, which is also helpful to enhance oral bioavailability. 4.2. pH-Sensitive PMs for Enhancement of Bioavailability It is indicated that non-pH-sensitive micelles Cilengitide may enhance drug solubilization but probably not necessarily the drug absorption. Free (readily absorbable) form of a drug is one of the most important requirements for absorption in the GI tract. However, drug release from such PMs will occur only by diffusion when polymer concentration is well above the CMC, preventing the complete drug release [11]. Moreover, Camilleri once studied the stomach emptying time (ca. 177min) and the small bowel transit time (ca.