This shows that there is an

active neuroplastic process in the brain that increases over time and is manifested by increased inhibitor Crizotinib cocaine-seeking behavior. Transcription factors have been observed to be changed by addictive drugs. Delta Fos B accumulates in dopamine terminals in the cortex and striatum.7 All drugs of abuse tested Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical produce an increase in delta Fos B, which appears to be involved in the development of motivated behaviors. Disruption of this process blocks the development of drug-associated plasticity such as behavioral sensitization. The latter is the increase in motor behavior in response to repeated, fixed doses of a stimulant.8 Genes directly regulated by delta Fos B appear to have different effects and may limit as well as Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical promote drug reinforcement. The delta Fos B changes are temporary, with return to prior levels when the drug is no longer present. Thus, these transcription factor changes do not seem to underlie long-term neuroplasticity. Changes in neuronal morphology

have also been noted Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in animals exposed to drugs that are abused. In the nucleus accumbens, an increase in dendritic spine density has been reported in medium spiny neurons from rats self-administering cocaine. These changes persisted during abstinence, and may be involved in long-term changes associated with drug-seeking behavior.9 Changes in neuronal morphology have also been found in individuals chronically exposed to opioids. Chronic morphine given to rats, for example, has been found to reduce dendritic spines (whereas stimulants Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical increased spines) on ventral tegmental area

neurons. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Chronic morphine also reduces neurogenesis in the hippocampus.10 These changes may be the basis for the cognitive losses seen in some patients receiving chronic opioids for pain. Since the learned addictive behavior is thought to result from neuroplasticity such as that described above, it seems logical to consider reversal of these changes as a target for the treatment of addictive behaviors. A very interesting animal model of this approach has been illustrated by a series of experiments by Kalivas el al. GSK-3 Using rats trained to selfadminister cocaine, they reported a reduction in glutamate in the brains of animals exposed to long-term cocaine and a disruption of glutamate homeostasis. Following withdrawal from chronic cocaine there is a marked imbalance in glutamate homeostasis, with both cystine-glutamate exchange and glutamate uptake being reduced in the nucleus accumbens.11 Hie imbalance in glutamate homeostasis is associated with a reduction in basal extracellular glutamate levels and a potentiated release of synaptic glutamate during drug-seeking.