, 2008). Similarly, for other brain regions, MBSR has been shown to decrease amygdala volume in subjects who show reduced chronic anxiety (Hölzel et al., 2010), and intense learning produces sustained increases in hippocampal volume (Draganski et al., 2006). Given the plasticity described above, can experiences that appear to be embedded by early life experience (e.g., adversity) be changed

by enhancing plasticity while using a targeted intervention? In addition, can we develop means to retain resilience and plasticity of prefrontal neurons as we age? Along with studies summarized in this Review on stress effects on prefrontal cortical plasticity, the selleckchem pioneering work on reorganization of the adult cerebral cortex (Bezzola et al., 2011, Blake et al., 2006 and Jancke, 2009) and pioneering studies of the reversal of developmentally induced monocular deprivation in visual cortex (Spolidoro et al., 2011 and Maya Vetencourt et al., 2008) raises the possibility of interventions that could change brain architecture

so as to improve cognitive function and self-regulatory behaviors. Ongoing VE-821 cost studies, at the cellular and molecular level, are beginning to reveal mechanisms involving perineuronal nets and excitatory/inhibitory balance and possible intervention strategies (Bavelier et al., 2010). Moreover, the method of optogenetics now allows for studies of connectivity between prefrontal cortex, amygala, hippocampus, and the mesolimbic and many nigrostriatal systems that can elucidate the functional relationships that are suggested by traditional neuroanatomy. Such studies synergize with advances in imaging functional connectivity of the human and nonhuman primate brain. Thus, the next 5 years should be a period of accelerating understanding of the plasticity and vulnerability of the prefrontal cortex across the life course and using such knowledge to enhance synaptic

properties and circuit characteristics that promote mental and cognitive health. “
“The epilepsies are one of the most common serious disorders of the CNS. Among the epilepsies, temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form and is often devastating both because of its resistance to anticonvulsants and its associated behavioral disorders (Engel et al., 1998). Retrospective studies of patients with medically refractory TLE revealed that the majority experienced an episode of continuous seizure activity (status epilepticus [SE]) years earlier (French et al., 1993). Longitudinal studies reveal that almost half of individuals experiencing de novo SE develop recurrent seizures (epilepsy) after a seizure-free latent period of variable duration (Annegers et al., 1987 and Tsai et al., 2009).