14,19 Subsequent neuroimaging findings may include basilar leptomeningeal enhancement, massive cerebral edema, evidence of elevated intracranial

pressure (ICP) (midline shift, compressed ventricles, compressed brainstem and basilar cisterns, and absence of subarachnoid spaces), and multifocal parenchymal lesions, often with evidence of hemorrhagic infarction or necrosis.14,19 In 1998, Kidney and Kim compared the neuroimaging findings by CT and MRI in a case of N fowleri-confirmed PAM and a case of B mandrillaris-confirmed GAE.19 As contrasted with nonspecific, diffuse cerebral edema in PAM, neuroimaging findings in GAE were more localized and included multiple, focal, punctuate, ring-enhancing lesions in the posterior fossa.19 In 2006, Singh p53 inhibitor and colleagues described their findings by CT and selleck products MRI in five cases of PAM and GAE, and described a wide spectrum of imaging findings that included multifocal parenchymal lesions, pseudotumor-like lesions, meningeal exudates, hemorrhagic infarcts, and cerebral necrosis, with more focal findings in GAE than in PAM cases.14 Although usually futile, successful treatment strategies for PAM have included combinations of cerebral edema-reducing therapies (corticosteroids, moderate hyperventilation, diuresis, and hypertonic saline) and specific pharmacotherapy

with antifungals (amphotericin B, miconazole, and voriconazole) and synergistic antibiotics (rifampin and azithromycin).15–18 Interleukin-2 receptor Several experimental therapies have shown some promise in treating PAM, including chlorpromazine and miltefosine.20,21 The optimal duration of therapy is unknown, but most survivors have been treated for 10 days.8 Today, PAM is best prevented by a combination of educational and behavioral modification strategies including the following.2,13 (1) Avoid water-related activities, such as swimming, diving, water skiing, and wakeboarding in bodies of warm freshwater, hot springs, and thermally polluted water, such as around coal-burning and nuclear electrical power plants. (2) Avoid similar water-related activities in warm freshwater during prolonged periods of high water

temperatures and low water volumes. (3) Hold the nose shut or use nose clips to avoid any traumatic disruptions in the nasal mucosal linings during water-related activities in warm freshwater, such as lakes, rivers, ponds, bayous, and hot springs. (4) Avoid similar water-related activities in drainage ditches, retention or oxidation ponds, and irrigation canals. (5) Avoid digging in or stirring up the sediment during all water-related activities in shallow, warm freshwater areas.2,13 GAE is a chronic infection of the brain that may disseminate to other organs hematogenously and usually occurs in immunosuppressed patients with AIDS or organ transplants, or in patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer or tuberculosis.