J Exp Med 1988,168(6):2251–2259.CrossRefPubMed 39. Navratilova Z: Polymorphisms in CCL2&CCL5 chemokines/chemokine RG7112 order receptors genes and their association with diseases. Biomed Pap AZD1390 supplier Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2006,150(2):191–204.PubMed Authors’ contributions CLM carried out the intracellular dynamic studies, cytokine quantification assays, electron microscopy and drafted the manuscript. VLP provided assistance and direction in the study design and sample processing for electron microscopy. RBP participated in the study design, directed the overall research and helped draft the manuscript.

All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background In the genus Yersinia there are three pathogenic species that can cause different diseases such

as bubonic plague or gastrointestinal disorders. Yersinia enterocolitica is an important human pathogen that can also provoke a variety of extraintestinal clinical syndromes, e. g. systemic arthritis. The main strategy used by Yersinia to overcome the host immune system is the blockage of phagocytosis by cells of the innate immune system and the silencing of inflammatory reactions [1]. For this purpose Yersinia translocates at least six so-called Yersinia Outer Proteins (Yops) into the host cell via a type III secretion system [2, 3]. The Yop effector proteins interfere with different eukaryotic cell signaling Cytoskeletal Signaling pathways and/or disrupt the cytoskeleton in a specialized way. For example, YopH is a phosphotyrosine phosphatase that inactivates components of focal adhesion complexes in mammalian cells [4] and induces apoptosis of infected T cells [5]. Two other Yop effectors, YopJ/P and YopM, affect components of signal transduction pathways in the

cytosol or nucleus. YopJ is a cysteine protease that inhibits MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways and promotes Dapagliflozin apoptosis in macrophages [6, 7]. YopM consists mainly of leucine rich repeats, accumulates in the nucleus and has apparently no enzymatic activity [8]. Another Yersinia effector protein attacking the mammalian cell cytoskeleton is YopE. In cooperation with other Yops YopE disrupts the actin cytoskeleton [9–12], blocks phagocytosis [9, 12, 13] and inhibits inflammatory responses [14–16]. In vitro, YopE is a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42 although the substrate specificity may differ inside the cell [10–12, 17–19]. More recently YopE has been found to inactivate also RhoG [20]. Infection studies on mice have shown that YopE is a very important virulence factor for the pathogenesis of all pathogenic Yersinia [21].