The FYVE and coiled-coil domain-containing protein FYCO1 functions as a Rab7 effector, binding to LC3 and PI3P and mediating microtubule plus

end-directed vesicle transport (74). The fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes is positively regulated by the UVRAG-Vps34-beclin1 PI3-kinase complex and negatively regulated by the Rubicon-UVRAG-Vps34-beclin1 PI3-kinase complex (Fig. 1, Autophagosome-lysosome fusion) (26–29, 38). Following autolysosome formation, the lysosomal hydrolases, including cathepsins, lysosomal glycolytic enzymes, and lipases, degrade the intra-autophagosomal contents. In this step cathepsins degrade LC3-II on the intra-autophagosomal GPCR Compound Library cost surface (Fig. 1, Degradation) (75, 76). In yeasts, Atg15, a vacuolar lipase, and Atg22, a vacuolar membrane protein, are indispensable for the specific degradation of autophagic bodies (77–79). No mammalian homologs of yeast Atg15 and Atg22 have

yet been identified. During conversion by Atg4B of LC3-II to LC3-I on the cytoplasmic face of the autophagosome and degradation by lysosomal hydrolases of LC3-II on the luminal learn more face of autophagosome, LC3-II decreases. After digestion of intra-autophagosomal contents, a lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 -positive and LC3-negative tubular structure, the protolysosome, is elongated from the autolysosome (Fig. 1, Protolysosome) (80). The protolysosome finally forms a vesicle, and matures into the lysosome by accumulating of lysosomal hydrolases. It is necessary to estimate autophagic activity accurately and quantitatively when studying autophagy

in infection and immune responses. LC3-II and LC3-positive puncta are recognized as promising autophagosome and autolysosome markers (but not “autophagy” markers). However, autophagosomes and autolysosomes are transient structures during autophagy. Therefore, the amount of LC3-II (or number of LC3-positive puncta) alone does Methane monooxygenase not always reflect autophagic activity. Production of LC3-II is increased when autophagy is activated (Fig. 1, Maturation), in addition lysosomal degradation of LC3-II and delipidation of LC3-II by Atg4B are simultaneously activated (Fig. 1, Autophagosome-lysosome fusion). Many methods for monitoring autophagy, including GFP-LC3, tf-LC3, and LC3-II turnover assay, have been proposed, these have both advantages and disadvantages. Recently, critical issues and guidelines for monitoring autophagy have been described (81–83). LC3 fused to green fluorescent protein is useful for in vivo imaging of autophagosome formation (84, 85). However, caution must be exercised due to the limitations of GFP-LC3 (86, 87). GFP-LC3 tends to form puncta in cells independent of autophagy, and GFP fluorescence in lysosomes may occur even after degradation of the LC3 moiety. Therefore, this method tends to overestimate the number of autophagosomes. These problems may be avoided by using a mutant, GFP-LC3ΔG which lacks the essential carboxy-terminal Gly of LC3, as a negative control (Fig. 2, LC3ΔG).