These localizations agree well with ultra high-resolution light microscopy studies that place RIM closer

to the plasma membrane than piccolo and bassoon (Dani et al., 2010). Interestingly, ultra-high resolution light microscopy has also been used in Drosophila to reconstruct at least part of an active zone with the t-bar that is characteristic for Drosophila active zones ( Figure 4B; Liu et al., 2011). EM tomography in C. elegans synapses also revealed dense projections to which synaptic vesicles are attached ( Stigloher et al., 2011). Gratifyingly, mutations in RIM or α-liprin disrupted the Antiinfection Compound Library in vitro attachment of synaptic vesicles in C. elegans active zones, consistent with the functional assignments of these proteins described above. Together, these results support the notion http://www.selleckchem.com/products/hydroxychloroquine-sulfate.html that the core complex

of active zone proteins is involved in linking synaptic vesicles, Ca2+ channels, and the fusion machinery to each other at the plasma membrane ( Figure 3). In cryo-EM studies of unfixed and unstained synapse preparations, however, no dense projections are detectable. The only structures visible are the plasma membrane, synaptic vesicles, and sparse filaments that either connect vesicles to each others (“connectors,” average length ∼10 nm) or tether vesicles to the presynaptic plasma membrane (“tethers”—5–20 nm; Landis et al., 1988 and Fernández-Busnadiego et al., 2010). No other structures are visible, even though the cytosol clearly must contain abundant protein complexes as described above. Is the view of the active zone obtained with fixed Resveratrol or with unfixed materials correct? It has been argued that EM with unfixed preparations is superior to EM on chemically fixed preparations because chemical fixatives, by their very nature,

crosslink proteins, and thus may create structures that are not normally present (Siksou et al., 2009; Fernández-Busnadiego et al., 2010). However, high-pressure freezing of samples is not devoid of potential problems since it generally involves a long preincubation in hyperosmotic medium, is not instantaneous, and subjects a sample to very high pressures. Clearly the fact that in cryo-EM images the protein complexes that are known to mediate the functions of the active zone are invisible does not mean these complexes are not there. Nevertheless, the dense projections observed in chemically fixed preparations would have been seen in cryo-EM images given their size, suggesting that these projections represent the result of chemical fixation. A plausible hypothesis thus is that chemical cross-linking of the active zone core protein complexes generates these dense projections.