This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grants R01-MH068764 (C.L.S.), T32-MH070343 (M.R.B) and T32-NS44928 (M.R.B.). Many thanks to Jane Venier, Dr Heather Molenda-Figueira, Dr Sarah Meerts, Maggie Mohr, Bradley Lawrence, Dana Gradl, Allison Melkonian, Genivieve www.selleckchem.com/products/Dapagliflozin.html Trombly, Robyn Weston, Jennifer La and

Christine Azizhkan. Abbreviations Acb nucleus accumbens AcbC nucleus accumbens core AcbSh nucleus accumbens shell Cg1 anterior cingulate medial prefrontal cortex CPP conditioned place preference DM/PeF dorsomedial hypothalamus/perifornical area IF interfascicular nucleus of the ventral tegmental area IL infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex LH lateral hypothalamus MeP posterior medial amygdala MePD posterdorsal medial amygdala MePV posteroventral medial amygdala mPFC medial prefrontal check details cortex PBP parabrachial pigmented nucleus of the ventral tegmental area PrL prelimbic medial prefrontal cortex PN paranigral nucleus of the ventral tegmental area Tail tail nucleus of the ventral tegmental area TH tyrosine hydroxylase VMH ventromedial hypothalamus VMHL lateral ventromedial hypothalamus VMHM medial ventromedial hypothalamus VS vaginal secretions VTA ventral tegmental area “
“Traditionally, neurotransmitters

are associated with a fast, or phasic, type of action on neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). However, accumulating evidence indicates that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate can also have a continual, or tonic, influence on these cells. Here, in voltage- and current-clamp recordings in rat brain slices, we identify three types of tonically

active receptors in a single CNS structure, the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN). Thus, TRN contains constitutively active GABAA receptors (GABAARs), which are located on TRN neurons and generate a persistent outward Cl− current. When TRN neurons are depolarized, blockade of this current increases Idoxuridine their action potential output in response to current injection. Furthermore, TRN contains tonically active GluN2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs). These are located on reticuloreticular GABAergic terminals in TRN and generate a persistent facilitation of vesicular GABA release from these terminals. In addition, TRN contains tonically active metabotropic glutamate type 2 receptors (mGlu2Rs). These are located on glutamatergic cortical terminals in TRN and generate a persistent reduction of vesicular glutamate release from these terminals. Although tonically active GABAARs, NMDARs and mGlu2Rs operate through different mechanisms, we propose that the continual and combined activity of these three receptor types ultimately serves to hyperpolarize TRN neurons, which will differentially affect the output of these cells depending upon the current state of their membrane potential.