Thus, while TFH and NKTFH cells are clearly essential to support IgG responses in systemic lymphoid follicles, other T-cell subsets such as Treg cells are crucial to initiate IgA responses in mucosal lymphoid follicles. The stimulating signals provided by TFH cells and NKTFH cells to germinal center B cells are counterbalanced by inhibitory signals provided by TFR cells. These cells are critical to select germinal center B cells with optimal affinity for antigen and may also influence the decision of germinal center B cells to differentiate along either plasma cell or memory B-cell pathways. Plasma cells and memory B cells generated by the germinal center

reaction require additional helper signals from eosinophils and possibly basophils to extend see more their lifespan in postgerminal center niches. Finally, the generation of short-lived plasmablasts learn more during natural or postimmune B-cell responses to TI antigens such as microbial carbohydrates and glycolipids involves multiple subsets of myeloid and plasmacytoid DCs, FDCs, epithelial cells, neutrophils, basophils, and mast cells, particularly in the MZ of the spleen and at mucosal sites. The identification

of novel helping partners for B cells opens up novel avenues for therapeutic intervention. In addition to harnessing the power of DCs and TFH cells, vaccines may need to target NKTFH cells, TFR cells, granulocytes, and mast cells to optimize the quantity, quality, and lifespan of antibodies produced by systemic and mucosal B cells. Conversely, inhibiting helper signals from DCs, TFH cells, NKTFH cells, granulocytes, and mast cells may be useful to dampen the production of pathogenic antibodies by autoreactive B cells and plasma cells that appear in autoimmune disorders. The authors declare no financial or commercial conflict of interest. “
“Natural killer T (NKT) cells are innate T lymphocytes that are restricted by CD1d antigen-presenting

molecules and recognize lipids MTMR9 and glycolipids as antigens. NKT cells have attracted attention for their potent immunoregulatory effects. Like other types of regulatory lymphocytes, a high proportion of NKT cells appear to be autoreactive to self antigens. Thus, as myeloid antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) constitutively express CD1d, NKT cells are able to interact with these APCs not only during times of immune activation but also in immunologically quiescent periods. The interactions of NKT cells with myeloid APCs can have either pro-inflammatory or tolerizing outcomes, and a central question is how the ensuing response is determined.