Furthermore, macrophages are one of two major cellular reservoirs for latent HIV-1 infection and contribute

to early-stage virus transmission and dissemination throughout the host (reviewed in [37]). To this end, we observed significant see more secretion of 4 potent chemokines responsible for granulocyte recruitment, MIP1-a, MIP1-b [38], MCP-1 and RANTES [39] (Table 2) indicating that macrophage exposure to M. genitalium in reproductive tissues likely would result in significant inflammation consistent with enhanced HIV-1 replication. Our findings suggest that both infected genital ECs and recruited immune cells are responsible for secretion of IL-6 and other cytokines that may contribute to HIV-1 pathogenesis but continued research is necessary to dissect the cellular dynamics of HIV-1 Selleckchem GSK2245840 and M. genitalium co-infections. In our studies, the macrophage-stimulatory capacity of M. genitalium was not dependent upon bacterial viability. This outcome likely is due to the highly sensitive nature of macrophages. However, both heat denaturation and proteinase-K digestion significantly reduced the cytokine response (Figure 5) suggesting

that a large proportion of M. genitalium’s inflammatory capacity is indeed mediated by protein components. In addition, other findings from our group showed that M. genitalium and the antigenic CHIR98014 MG309-encoded protein activate TLR2/6 to induce pro-inflammatory PI-1840 cytokine secretion from human MDM and reproductive tract ECs [22]. Collectively, these results indicated that macrophages are highly sensitive to M. genitalium exposure and highlight the putative pressure to evade the cellular immune responses. Establishment of primary infection and persistence by M. genitalium in host tissues

is not well understood. Our findings suggest that a subset of M. genitalium organisms rapidly invade host ECs thereby exploiting an intracellular survival niche to evade the potent and effective cellular host immune responses. Studies that address directly whether reproductive ECs provide protection from macrophage phagocytosis are currently underway and will be essential to understand this mechanism of immune evasion. Importantly, M. genitalium infection resulted in acute-phase inflammatory cytokine responses from vaginal and cervical ECs. Therefore, it is possible that persistent infection of female reproductive tract tissues may indeed result in inflammatory outcomes that could affect reproductive health but continued research is necessary to fully elucidate the mechanisms of M. genitalium-induced urogenital disease in women. Conclusion Human vaginal, ecto- and endocervical ECs were susceptible to M. genitalium G37 and M2300 infection resulting in rapid intracellular localization of a subset of organisms and significant secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines.