After further amendment in 2005, employers are no longer obliged to have a full contract with an external OHS provider. Under the condition of an appropriate collective agreement between employers and employees, employers are allowed to arrange NU7441 legally required OH activities by themselves. If the results are not PF-6463922 price satisfactory, however, they should contract with an external OHS provider. A contract with an OP is still compulsory for pre-employment examinations, periodical health examinations, and

medical sickness absence guidance activities (Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, the Netherlands 2006). Thus, although OHSs for SSEs are not similar, the two countries have established universal OHS for all employees including those in SSEs. The present study was initiated to investigate the activities of OPs in Japan and the Netherlands, with additional foci of collecting suggestions from OPs in the two countries for improvement in OHS in SSEs. It was expected that such study should be valuable for the improvement

of the quality of OHS for SSEs not only in the two countries but also in other countries. Methods Study subjects Participants of the present study in the two counties were OPs who were working in SMEs, and not associated with in-company OHS. A questionnaire survey was conducted in December 2006. Subjects in Japan were OPs who belonged to member external OHS organizations of National Federation of Industrial Health Organizations, Japan (NFIHO). Full-time OPs for large companies Fludarabine in vitro and practitioners in clinic/hospital facilities were not affiliated to NFIHO member organizations, and they were automatically excluded from this study. Questionnaires (for details, see below) were mailed to all 461 physicians in NFIHO. Subjects in the Netherlands were selected from 1,780 physicians who were the members of the Netherlands Society of Occupational Liothyronine Sodium Medicine (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Arbeids—en Bedrijfsgeneeskunde, NVAB). Based on the post codes, the country was grouped into 4 regions and

20% of all OPs from each region were selected. A stratified random sampling strategy by decade of years of age and gender was employed for the selection. After exclusion of apparently non-active physicians (e.g., retired, or exclusively researching or teaching), questionnaires were sent to 335 physicians. Reminder letters were sent only to OPs in the Netherlands and only once. In practice, 107 Japanese (23%) and 106 Dutch physicians (32%) replied, respectively. Of these physicians, 28 Japanese and 17 Dutch physicians were non-active as an OP and they were excluded. In addition, 19 Dutch OPs were full-timers for large companies and were also excluded from the analysis. Thus, effective replies from remaining 79 Japanese (17%) and 70 Dutch OP cases (21%) were employed for analysis.

Such a phase separation scenario bridges the gap between the double-exchange model and the lattice distortion models. The signatures of EPS can be revealed by different techniques depending on the length scale on which it occurs. For mesoscopic phase separation, diffraction techniques can be used to reveal its

distinct features since the size scale of the inhomogeneities is large enough to produce well-defined find more reflections in neutron and X-ray diffraction patterns [9]. However, for the nanoscopic electronic inhomogeneity in manganites, both TEM, high-resolution TEM and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), and STM can be used to reveal the coexistence of nanoscopic charge-ordered (insulating) BI 6727 research buy domains and the FM metallic domains, giving the local structural information at atomic level [5]. It is often difficult to identify EPS www.selleckchem.com/products/Cyt387.html based on the magnetization and transport measurements because of the sensitivity of phase separation to magnetic fields. Thus, magnetic fields transform the antiferromagnetic insulating

state to the ferromagnetic metallic state. However, transport measurements, under favorable conditions, can provide valuable information on phase separation. EPS in low-dimensional perovskite manganite nanostructures Over the last decade, nanomaterials have received much attention from the scientific and engineering viewpoints. They exhibit different properties from those of bulk materials due to their small size and large surface-to-volume ratios, and become promising candidates for nanometer scale electronic, optical, and mechanical devices. Recent advances

in science and technology of perovskite manganites have most resulted in the feature sizes of perovskite manganite-based oxide electronic devices entering into nanoscale dimensions. As the spatial dimension of the low-dimensional manganite nanostructures is reduced to the characteristic EPS length scale, quite dramatic changes in their transport properties such as ultrasharp jumps of magnetoresistance, reentrant MIT, negative differential resistances, and intrinsic tunneling magnetoresistance could appear, which are believed to be caused in large part by the EPS in perovskite manganite nanostructures [27–33]. They have significant impacts on fabricating oxide-based novel devices. To better understand the EPS phenomenon in low-dimensional perovskite manganite nanostructures, in the past several years, various synthetic methods such as sol–gel technique [47], hydrothermal synthesis [48, 49], electro-spinning process [50, 51], template method [52–54], and lithographic techniques [27, 29–31, 33, 34] have been developed to fabricate low-dimensional manganite nanostructures, such as manganite nanoparticles, nanowires/nanotubes, and nanostructured films/patterns.

All samples were repeated three times, and data were analyzed by Student’s t test. In vitro clonogenic assay Human lung carcinoma cells were counted after trypsinization. Cells were serially diluted to appropriate concentrations and removed into 25-cm2 flasks in 5-mL medium

in triplicate per data point. After various treatments, cells were maintained for buy GF120918 8 days. Cells were then fixed for 15 minutes with a 3:1 ratio of methanol:acetic acid and stained for 15 minutes with 0.5% crystal violet (Sigma) in methanol. After staining, colonies were counted by the naked eye, with a cutoff of 50 viable cells. Error bars represent ± SE by pooling of the results of three independent experiments. Surviving fraction was calculated as (mean colony counts)/(cells

inoculated)*(plating efficiency), where plating efficiency was defined as mean colony counts/cells inoculated for untreated controls. Cell cycle and apoptosis analysis Flow cytometry analysis of Tariquidar nmr DNA content was performed to assess the cell cycle phase distribution as described previously[6]. Cells were harvested and stained for DNA content using propidium iodide fluorescence. The computer program Multicycle from Phoenix Flow System (San Diego, CA, USA) was used to generate histograms which were used to determine the cell cycle phase distribution and apoptosis. TUNEL staining was also used to detect apoptosis as described previously [7]. The TUNEL stained apoptotic cells were separately numbered in four randomly selected microscopic fields (400*) and graphed. Western blot After various treatments, cells were washed with ice-cold PBS twice before the addition of lysis buffer (20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1% Triton X-100, 2.5 mM sodium NaPPi, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and leupeptin). Protein concentrations were quantified separately by the Bio-Rad SC79 Bradford assay.

Equal amounts of protein were loaded into each well and separated by 10% SDS PAGE, followed by transfer onto nitrocellulose membranes. Membranes were blocked using 5% nonfat dry milk in PBS for 1 hour at room temperature. The Fossariinae blots were then incubated with anti-p21, anti-cyclin D1, anti-bax, anti-bcl-2, anti-clusterin, and anti-caspase-3 antibodies (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) at 4°C overnight. Blots were then incubated in secondary antibody conjugated with HRP (1:1000; Santa Cruz Biotechnology) for 1 hour at room temperature. Immunoblots were developed using the enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) detection system (Amersham, Piscataway, NJ) according to the manufacturer’s protocol and autoradiography. Results As2O3 exerted synergistic effects with DDP on the proliferation of A549 and H460 The MTT assay showed that 10-2 μM to 10 μM inhibited the proliferation of A549 and H460 at 72 hours (Fig. 1). In vitro clonogenic assay proved 10-1 μM to 12.5 μM As2O3 inhibited the proliferation of A549 and H460 cells (Fig. 2). MTT assay results showed that 2.

2012). The development of biodiversity safeguards and indicators Geneticin datasheet as well as their consequent selleck kinase inhibitor integration into forest management and respective incentive-based instruments for enhancing forest ecosystem services is therefore required (Schaich and Konold 2012; Caparros and Jacquemont 2003). Conference and papers on forest biodiversity conservation in times of climate change In spite of remaining uncertainties concerning

the future impacts of climate change, there is a distinct need to generate more knowledge about the specific ways in which these will affect forest species and development processes. Moreover, it is important to reassess and refine strategies for the conservation of forest biodiversity. To address and discuss the challenges posed by climate change to forest biodiversity conservation from a global perspective, the Institute for Landscape Management and the Institute of Forest- and Environmental Policy of the University of Freiburg organized an international conference, which was held in September 2011 in Freiburg (Germany). The conference was an outcome of a joint research project of

both Institutes on forests conservation and climate change, which was commissioned by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation of Germany (BfN). The conference pursued an interdisciplinary and international approach Buspirone HCl aimed at the combination of both

conservation and political science perspectives and the international exchange and comparison of experiences. EPZ015666 cost Overall, 32 selected papers were presented by participants from 18 countries in two thematic sessions. Paper sessions were accompanied by plenum sessions with key note lectures from Jeffrey McNeely (IUCN), Benjamin Cashore (Yale University), Marcus Lindner (European Forest Institute) and Robert Flies (EU Commission, Environment DG). In this special issue we focus on the session on “Biodiversity Conservation in Forests in Times of Climate Change”, which hosted paper presentations based on theoretical considerations or case studies dealing with one or several of the following three aspects: Analysis of the main impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems, possible forest ecosystem responses and their relation to biodiversity conservation objectives. Identification of promising strategies to adapt biodiversity conservation and management in forests in light of climate change and related uncertainties. Evaluation of general principles, objectives and reference systems of biodiversity conservation in a changing climate. Finally, we selected eight papers, which address core questions relating to the aforementioned aspects.

J Bacteriol 2005,187(7):2426–2438.PubMedCrossRef 15. Vuong C, Gerke C, Somerville GA, Fischer ER, Otto M: Quorum-sensing control of biofilm factors in Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Infect Dis 2003,188(5):706–718.PubMedCrossRef 16. O’Gara JP: ica and find protocol beyond: biofilm mechanisms and regulation in Staphylococcus epidermidis and Tubastatin A mouse Staphylococcus aureus. Fems Microbiol Lett 2007,270(2):179–188.PubMedCrossRef 17. Johnson M, Cockayne

A, Morrissey JA: Iron-regulated biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus Newman requires ica and the secreted protein Emp. Infect Immun 2008,76(4):1756–1765.PubMedCrossRef 18. Rogasch K, Ruhmling V, Pane-Farre J, Hoper D, Weinberg C, Fuchs S, Schmudde M, Broker BM, Wolz C, Hecker M, Engelmann S: Influence of the two-component system SaeRS on global gene expression in two different Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Bacteriol 2006,188(22):7742–7758.PubMedCrossRef 19. selleck products Mann EE, Rice KC, Boles BR, Endres JL, Ranjit D, Chandramohan L, Tsang LH, Smeltzer MS, Horswill AR, Bayles KW: Modulation of eDNA release and degradation affects Staphylococcus aureus biofilm maturation. PLoS One 2009,4(6):e5822.PubMedCrossRef 20. Christensen GD, Simpson

WA, Younger JJ, Baddour LM, Barrett FF, Melton DM, Beachey EH: Adherence of Decitabine price Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci to Plastic Tissue-Culture Plates

– a Quantitative Model for the Adherence of Staphylococci to Medical Devices. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1985,22(6):996–1006.PubMed 21. Charbonnier Y, Gettler B, Francois P, Bento M, Renzoni A, Vaudaux P, Schlegel W, Schrenzel J: A generic approach for the design of whole-genome oligoarrays, validated for genomotyping, deletion mapping and gene expression analysis on Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Genomics 2005, 6:95.PubMedCrossRef 22. Scherl A, Francois P, Charbonnier Y, Deshusses JM, Koessler T, Huyghe A, Bento M, Stahl-Zeng J, Fischer A, Masselot A, Vaezzadeh A, Gallé F, Renzoni A, Vaudaux P, Lew D, Zimmermann-Ivol CG, Binz PA, Sanchez JC, Hochstrasser DF, Schrenzel J: Exploring glycopeptide-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: a combined proteomics and transcriptomics approach for the identification of resistance-related markers. BMC Genomics 2006, 7:296.PubMedCrossRef 23. Talaat AM, Howard ST, Hale Wt, Lyons R, Garner H, Johnston SA: Genomic DNA standards for gene expression profiling in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nucleic Acids Res 2002,30(20):e104.PubMedCrossRef 24.

Further, the work was supported by the Swedish Council for Working

Life and Social Research (METALUND project), the County Councils of Southern Sweden and the Medical Faculty, Lund University. Conflicts of interest The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and buy RG-7388 source are credited. References Barany E, Bergdahl IA, Bratteby LE, Lundh T, Samuelson G, Schütz A, Skerfving S, Oskarsson A (2002) Relationships MK5108 cell line between trace element concentrations in human blood and serum.

Toxicol Lett 134:177–184CrossRef Bergdahl IA, Gerhardsson L, Schütz A, Desnick RJ, Wetmur JG, Skerfving S (1997) Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase polymorphism: influence on lead levels and kidney function in humans. Arch Environ Health 52:91–96CrossRef Bergdahl IA, Vahter M, Counter SA, Schütz A, Buchanan LH, Ortega F, Laurell G, Skerfving S (1999) Lead in plasma and whole blood from lead-exposed children. Environ Res 80:25–33CrossRef Bergdahl IA, Gerhardsson L, Liljelind IE, Nilsson L, Skerfving S (2006) Plasma-lead concentration: investigations into its usefulness for biological monitoring of occupational lead exposure. Am J Ind Med 49:93–101CrossRef Campbell BC, Meredith PA, Moore MR, Watson WS (1984) Kinetics of lead following intravenous administration in man. Toxicol learn more Lett 21:231–235CrossRef Costa de Almeida GR, de Freitas Tavares CF, de Souza AM, Sampaio de Sousa T, Rodrigues Funayama CA, Barbosa F Jr, Tanus-Santos JE, Gerlach RF (2010) Whole blood, serum, and saliva lead concentrations in 6- to 8-year-old children. Sci Total

PAK6 Environ 408:1551–1556CrossRef Fleming DE, Chettle DR, Wetmur JG, Desnick RJ, Robin JP, Boulay D, Richard NS, Gordon CL, Webber CE (1998) Effect of the delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase polymorphism on the accumulation of lead in bone and blood in lead smelter workers. Environ Res 77:49–61CrossRef Gennart JP, Bernard A, Lauwerys R (1992) Assessment of thyroid, testes, kidney and autonomic nervous system function in lead-exposed workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 64:49–57CrossRef Hirata M, Yoshida T, Miyajima K, Kosaka H, Tabuchi T (1995) Correlation between lead in plasma and other indicators of lead exposure among lead-exposed workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 68(1):58–63CrossRef Montenegro MF, Barbosa F Jr, Sandrim VC, Gerlach RF, Tanus-Santos JE (2006) A polymorphism in the delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase gene modifies plasma/whole blood lead ratio. Arch Toxicol 80:394–398CrossRef Nilsson U, Attewell R, Christoffersson JO, Schütz A, Ahlgren L, Skerfving S, Mattsson S (1991) Kinetics of lead in bone and blood after end of occupational exposure.

The PCR products were subsequently digested with BglII (or PstI), and ligated with a kanamycin or chloramphenicol

resistance cassette (aphA-3 or cat; [43, 44] flanked by the compatible BamHI (or BglII) restriction sites. The direction of transcription of the antibiotic resistance genes (kanamycin [Km] and chloramphenicol [Cm]) was the same as that of the target gene to avoid possible polar effects. Plasmids containing the interrupted gene were used as suicide plasmids for natural transformations check details of the H. pylori strain 26695. The successful chromosomal replacement of the target gene with the disrupted gene construct via allelic exchange (double crossover) was checked by PCR using suitable primer combinations. Functional complementation of mutants Functional complementation experiments for the uvrB and uvrC BV-6 mutant strains were performed by inserting an intact copy of the

BI 10773 datasheet target gene into the ureAB locus (Additional file 4: Table S3). To do so, the ORFs HP1114 and HP0821 were cloned in the pADC vector [45] downstream of the strong ureAB promoter, creating the plasmids pSUS2646 and pSUS2644 (Additional file 4: Table S2 and S3). Functional complementation of uvrA was performed by inserting an intact copy of the uvrA gene together with 400 bp of DNA upstream of the start codon containing the putative uvrA promoter into the rdxA locus. The ORF HP0705 plus the upstream region were cloned in the pCJ535 vector, creating the plasmid pSUS3009. These suicide plasmids were introduced via natural transformation into the single gene mutant strains 26695 uvrA, 26695 uvrB, and 26695 uvrC, and the transformants were selected on Km/Cm blood agar plates. The correct insertion of the complementing genes in the ureAB or rdxA locus was controlled by PCR and sequence analysis of the

insertion sites. In vitro transformation system of H. pylori, determination of mutation and recombination frequencies and import sizes The transformation system used to quantitate, in parallel, mutation and recombination rates as well as the length of the DNA fragments incorporated into the chromosome after recombination has been described previously [12]. Mutation rates obtained with this system have been shown to be in excellent agreement with fluctuation analysis [42]. From each experiment, at least 16 clones Galactosylceramidase were expanded in order to sequence a fragment (1663 bp) of the rpoB gene (see below). The experiments were reproduced three times for each H. pylori mutant strain. To determine the length of import events in the rpoB gene, a 2361 bp PCR fragment of rpoB was amplified with primers HPrpoB-1 and HPrpoB-6 as previously described [12] and Additional file 4: Table S2). This PCR product was used as template for the sequencing reactions with the primers HPrpoB-3, -4, -5, -6, -9w, and −10. The six sequences from each rifampicin resistant clone were assembled using the software Bionumerics V 4.

The analysis of TyrS sequence revealed the typical HIGH and KMSKS domains of class I aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, being the HIGH motif perfectly conserved, and the KMSKS motif is represented by the KFGKT sequence, as in E. coli [23], Bacillus subtilis [24], and E. faecalis [14]. Mapping of the transcriptional selleckchem start site revealed a long untranslated HDAC cancer leader region of 322 bp with a highly conserved set of primary-sequence and secondary structure elements. These elements include three stem-loop structures, a highly

conserved 14-bp sequence designated the T box, and a factor-independent transcriptional terminator (Figure 3). These features are also present in other genes of gram positive bacteria, mainly genes encoding aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, but also amino acid biosynthetic genes and transporters [25–27]. Several studies have revealed a crucial role for conserved leader region Selleck Wnt inhibitor motifs in regulation of gene expression at the level of premature termination of transcription [28]. In order to test whether this mechanism regulates the tyrS gene of E. durans TDC cluster, the

levels of mRNA were quantified using specific primers for the leader and coding region of tyrS. When E. durans was starved for tyrosine, the predominant transcript was a 1.6 kb mRNA fragment, which is the expected size for full-length mRNA (mRNA-C). Interestingly, when tyrosine was present in excess, full-length mRNA was dramatically depleted, whereas the truncated mRNA-L species kept almost constant. Thus, tyrosine had no effect on the total number of mRNA-L molecules

but caused a stoichiometric replacement of full-length mRNA by truncated RNA molecules. These data are consistent with the idea that tyrosine controls tyrS expression by promoting the Phosphoglycerate kinase premature termination of transcription rather than by inhibiting the initiation of transcription. Experiments involving transcriptional fusions of the tyrS promoter with ß-galactosidase provided evidence for this mechanism. We showed that deletion of the T box-Terminator domain of the leader region originates a complete lost of regulation by tyrosine. Early termination at pH 4.9 in presence of tyrosine observed in vivo in the leader tyrS mRNA (which shows that this sequence promotes terminator formation specifically in presence of tyrosine) was not observed for the PtyrS Δ promoter. This effect can be expected because the T box sequence is present in a side bulge of the antiterminator overlapping the terminator-antiterminator structures. In addition to the tyrosine regulation, transcription of tyrS is under strict pH control in E. durans, being expressed mostly at acidic growth conditions. The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases catalyze the covalent attachment of amino acids to their cognate tRNAs.

The concentration of H2O2 influences the nucleation and motility of Ag particles, which leads to the formation of different porous structures within the nanowires. When H2O2 concentration is too high, the excessive Ag+ would be produced, and they renucleate to form numerous Ag particles Selleck NSC 683864 which catalyze H2O2 reduction and induce excessive silicon dissolution. That is to say, the polishing would be induced under high H2O2 concentration of the HF/AgNO3/H2O2 system. Figure 7 Schematic illustration of the formation process of PSiNWs through

MACE method in HF/H 2 O 2 /AgNO 3 system. (A) Ag nanoparticles deposit on silicon surface at the beginning. (B) SiNWs grow with the migration of Ag particle, and some Ag+ ions renucleate throughout the nanowires. (C) Numerous perpendicular pore channel form with the migration

of renucleated Ag particle. (D) Porous structure can be Fludarabine price obtained with the removal of Ag0. Conclusion This work has demonstrated p53 activator a simple MACE method for successfully fabricating lightly doped porous silicon nanowires at room temperature. The effects of H2O2 concentration on nanostructure of moderately and lightly doped SiNWs were investigated. The results indicate that the concentration of H2O2 influences the nucleation and motility of Ag particles, which leads different porous structure within the nanowires. In the HF/AgNO3/H2O2 etching Rutecarpine system, the H2O2 species replaces Ag+ as the oxidant and the Ag nanoparticles work as catalyst during the etching. A mechanism based on the lateral etching which is catalyzed by Ag particles with the motivation of H2O2 reduction is proposed to explain the formation of PSiNWs. The simple etching system not only synthesizes large-scale moderately doped single crystalline PSiNWs, but can also fabricate lightly doped ones, which can open up exciting opportunities

in a wide range of applications. For example, the vertically aligned nanowires with a high surface area can be exploited as a high-capacity electrode for supercapacitors. The deep quantum confinement effect and biodegradability feature of the porous silicon nanowires may enable interesting applications in optoelectronics and drug delivery. Acknowledgement Financial supports of this work from the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China (20135314110001) and the Program for Innovative Research Team in University of Ministry of Education of China (IRT1250) were gratefully acknowledged. References 1. Schmidt V, Riel H, Senz S, Karg S, Riess W, Gösele U: Realization of a silicon nanowire vertical surround-gate field-effect transistor. Small 2006, 2:85–88.CrossRef 2. Hochbaum AI, Chen R, Delgado RD, Liang W, Garnett EC, Najarian M, Majumdar A, Yang P: Enhanced thermoelectric performance of rough silicon nanowires. Nature 2008, 451:163–167.CrossRef 3.

0b10 (Swofford 2002) to

assess clade support. The third set, henceforth referred to as the 4-gene backbone analysis, consisted of four loci including the nuclear ribosomal gene regions (5.8S, 18S, and 25S) and the RNA polymerase II (rpb2) region between conserved domains 5 and 7. Positions deemed ambiguous in alignment were pruned from the nexus file before conversion to Phylip format using SeaView 4.2.4 (Gouy et al. 2010). Nexus and Phylip files of the Androgen Receptor Antagonist four-gene region data set can be obtained from http://​www.​bio.​utk.​edu/​matheny/​Site/​Alignments_​%26_​Data_​Sets.​html. In the final concatenated alignment, rRNA gene regions occupied positions 1–2854; the rpb2 region comprised positions 2855–3995. The four-gene region data set was analyzed using maximum likelihood (ML) in RAxML 7.0.3 (Stamatakis Tubastatin A mouse 2006a) with rapid bootstrapping (Stamatakis et al. 2008) and by Bayesian inference using the parallel version of MrBayes 3.1.2 (Altekar et al. 2004; Huelsenbeck and Ronquist 2001; Ronquist and Huelsenbeck 2003) on the Newton cluster at the University of Tennessee. For both ML and Bayesian analyses, the rRNA gene regions were treated as a single partition following Aime et al. (2006; see Appendix I). First, second, and third codon partitions of rpb2 were partitioned separately. Thus, four partitions were assigned and modeled separately. One thousand rapid bootstraps

and a thorough ML search were conducted in RAxML using four distinct models/partitions CX-6258 with Decitabine solubility dmso joint branch length optimization. All free model parameters were estimated by RAxML and incorporated a GAMMA + P-Invar model of rate heterogeneity, a GTR substitution rate matrix, and empirical base frequencies for the final ML search. Rapid bootstrapping was done using a GTRCAT model (Stamatakis 2006b). Bayesian inference was performed using a mixed models analysis run in parallel for

up to 50 million generations. Four chains were run with trees sampled every 5,000 steps with the heating temperature set to 0.1. Convergence diagnostic features were used to guide burn-in choice. All analyses were rooted with Plicaturopsis crispa (Amylocorticiales; Binder et al. 2010). The fourth data set used a Supermatrix with 1,000 bootstrap replicates (SMBS) to analyze a more comprehensive data set comprising multiple representatives of taxa from various geographic regions, and utilizing all the available ITS, LSU, SSU and RPB2 sequences except those with only ITS sequences. All sequences were from single collections. The four gene partitions used were: rRNA 1–3164, rpb2 1st codon pos 3165–3915/3, rpb2 2nd codon pos 3166–3915/3, rpb2 3rd codon pos 3167–3915/3. In the rRNA partition, SSU comprised pos 1–1754, 5.8S 1755–1956, LSU 1957–3164. A GTRGAMMA model was assigned to each partition. This analysis was restricted to the hygrophoroid clade as delineated by the 4-gene ML analysis above.